Jewelry styles: Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo

Middle Ages

Characteristics: Period: 5th-15th century

• pointed shapes, simple elegant patterns
• inserts: freshwater pearls, amber, jet, coral; emeralds and rubies were imported, only very rich people could afford them
• techniques: enameling, gilding, soldering, inlay, casting, grinding, metal-plastic; At the end of the Middle Ages, the process of cutting stones began
• biblical scenes, depiction of the afterlife

During the Middle Ages, Western European styles became similar.

Christianity played an important role in medieval jewelry. It's not just about the appearance, but also about the creation of the products themselves. In the early Middle Ages, monasteries became the center of jewelry making. At the monastery, jewelers learned the craft of art and over time opened their own businesses in the cities. The first guilds of goldsmiths were organized in the 12th century. This stimulated education, cooperation between workshops and quality control of products.

The design of jewelry of that time can be learned not only from surviving samples and paintings, but also from the pages of prayer books.

Jewelry reflected a clear hierarchy and was seen as a status symbol. Laws were even passed to restrict gold, silver and precious stones for the commoners. Therefore, those who did not belong to the nobility could not afford expensive jewelry even if they had money. The Crusades and the development of trade routes helped spread art and technology throughout Europe. The development of trade brought a lot of money, and with it the opportunity to buy expensive things.

Superstitions coexisted with Christianity, so jewelry still played the role of amulets. Metal, color, shape and stone mattered. Some medieval items have cryptic inscriptions that were probably meant to protect the owner. This is seen as the influence of alchemy and the spread of lapidaries.

Shevelenko A. Ya. Jewelry of the early Middle Ages in Western Europe

Questions of History, 1996, No. 8. [128] - end of page. OCR Oliva.

In Western Europe VI-XI centuries. Jewelry, as one of the components of material social existence, was characterized by multifunctionality. By studying archaeological finds and museum exhibitions, delving into the text of written sources, looking at illustrations in manuscripts, we understand that jewelry was then used as personal adornment and as furnishing elements, demonstrating the wealth or belonging of their owners to a certain class. They were used to achieve various goals: psychological influence, competitive, gaming, fortune-telling, religious. They were means of accumulating value, self-satisfaction, increasing personal attractiveness and public authority, often denoting specific events of the past or possible in the future, symbolizing posthumous veneration, being lucky talismans or amulets protecting against evil spells. There was practically no sphere of social life at that time in which jewelry did not play a certain role.

The range of these items of high value varied from century to century and from one social stratum of their owners to another, depending on the quality indicators of the jewelry itself, their natural rarity, demand for them and passing fashion, on the objective possibilities of their production and subjective possibilities of acquisition. Their range gradually expanded and improved, although there were downturns in development. And the initial level was higher where in the 5th-6th centuries, after the replacement of ancient society by the early medieval one, more ancient craft traditions were preserved and where urban life survived during the troubled times of the Great Migration.

The production of jewelry, as well as any other artistic craft product, depended on a number of factors. These were influenced by long-established norms, the availability of the necessary raw materials and mastered methods of processing them, as well as a creative workforce with its labor experience and professional knowledge. Certain socio-political conditions also influenced, creating a favorable or unfavorable environment for the demand, production, sale and consumption of certain values. Pure raw materials or semi-finished products were purchased by craftsmen in mines, mines and intermediate authorities - from other artisans, mine owners, sailors, random individuals, intermediaries, merchants, even robbers. Often the stages of the path that this or that thing has gone through remain unknown to us, and we encounter it at the very end of this path, when, for example, it was given to someone. If a gift was made to the temple, then it was recorded in a record, which is now an index for us. Numerous examples include the descriptions of gifts to the Roman Church from believers, included in the list of “Liber pontificalis romanus”1).

Jewelry in the proper sense of the term was made by goldsmiths and jewelers, whose [128] work sometimes did not coincide and was divided, and sometimes combined in the same hands. Such specialists, especially more skilled ones, were more common in the 5th-6th centuries. among the Romanesque peoples who had direct ancient Roman heritage. Other inhabitants of Western Europe - the Celts and Germans, the Huns and Alans who came there - had fewer skilled craftsmen. Therefore, at first they were dominated by rather crude products with figured and geometric patterns, with almandines tastelessly scattered across the surface and poorly polished, and occasionally with filigree and inlay. They got a lot of things by robbery and then partially remade them. Others were placed for use “in the next world” in graves dug at the site of battle death or incidentally during relocation. These are the sensational coins and jewelry found in 1653 in the Tournian tomb of the Salic Frankish king Childeric I of Meroving (482), who conquered Northern Gaul. Such masking circumstances of the finds complicate the localization of craft centers and the scientific classification of objects2).

The culture of the Eastern Roman Empire, which survived the defeat of the barbarians, then had a noticeable impact on Western Europe. This was also evident in the sphere of crafts. Balkan and North African silver items of the 5th–6th centuries. Asia Minor-Helladic ones are often copied. This influence can be easily seen on things that were forcibly borrowed from previous owners and moved to other owners, for example, on a die that belonged to the Vandal king Gelimer (530). And in Italy, Spain and Gaul, the conquerors adopted on the spot the ancient Roman art of opus interrasile: engraving on pendants and clasps, sometimes even stamping.

The Lombards, Visigoths and Burgundians, who captured large areas of these countries, then began to manufacture expensive items according to individual requirements. One of the most famous is the funeral cup of the Burgundian king Sigismund (524). Personal orders, in addition to kings and military leaders, also came from clergy, such as an agreement on objects for the liturgy, carried out at the request of the rector of the Church of St. Mauritius of Agon in Helvetia (650). Such early feudal figures sometimes did not look outside, but organized their own gold-smithing workshops for their own needs, whose extant works are now stored in museum collections. Typical are the crowns that allegedly belonged to the women of Duke Svintila (631), and the Toledo set of jewelry of the Visigothic king Reccesvint (649). Almost all jewelry of that time has a characteristic specificity: a peculiar combination of various symbols reflected in them - ancient, barbarian and early Christian 3).

In the possessions of the Merovingians, there were products that came from many areas of Europe. A similar mixture is inherent, for example, in the treasures of the noble Theodolinda (627). As for the works of the local craft centers of Gaul, the inlays from the monastery workshop of St. Dionysius. A temporary renaissance of ancient achievements was observed under the Carolingians, until the end of the 1st millennium. This affected the now more sophisticated church utensils, works made of ivory (like the elegant case for ladies' accessories of Beatrice Capet, 1000) and porphyry stone used for vases. If earlier abstract Christian symbols were used in the artistic framing of icons, now specific Church Fathers are depicted. Among the personal items that have come down to us, we can name a colorfully inlaid cup of Charlemagne’s worst enemy - the Bavarian Duke Thassilon III (788), a richly decorated casket of Charles himself, an exceptionally crafted hanging purse of the Saxon edeling Widukind (807)4).

In the jewelry art of the Carolingian state, local “subschools” also developed, each with its own differences: the North German one prepared enamels with animal figures; the Flanders, and after it the Reichenau, introduced gold paint in miniatures; The Sudetenland produced expensive amulets against magic. In the middle of the 9th century. established the production of exceptionally valuable book bindings; The bindings of the Regensburg Codex of St. are impressive. Emmeran (870) and the psalter of the West Frankish king Charles the Bald. The altars began to be more abundantly covered with jewels, among which the altar table prepared for the temple by Duke Arnulf of Carinthia (late 9th century) and the altar side in the Milan Church of St. Ambrose5).

Further development of the artistic craft led to a new demarcation and the formation of independent goldsmithing schools. In Germany, Ottonian work was characterized by a strong variety of types of products, materials used and techniques. Among the highest achievements of the Ottonians is the ritual cup in the Tula monastery of St. Gozlin (962), the golden Madonna of the city temple in Essen (980), the ornamented multi-figure pulpit of the Zion Cathedral in the Rhone Valley, the cross of the local lord Egbert in Maastricht (977), made by order of Emperor Henry II of Bamberg [129] altar (1014 g). Ottonian craftsmen also shined in the manufacture or finishing of jewelry for high-ranking women; Most notable are the Mainz set of 20 artful objects for Emperor Conrad II's wife Gisela (1027) and a similar collection for Emperor Henry III's wife Agnes (1046)6).

The Hildesheim workshop, established in the 11th century, was distinguished by expensive bronze products: figurines of saints, reliefs on church pulpits and monstrances, and widely exported brass plaques with enamel, niello and precious stones. North German workshops produced rough enamels, series of procedural accessories and personal items; Especially famous are the crosses of Countess Gertrude (1077) and the crown treasures of the Welf dynasty.

In Italian Campania, the Montecassi workshop of Abbot Desiderius (1058-1087) was famous for distributing silver crosses and plaques with the image of Jesus. Spiral filigree and pearl-covered inserts were exported from Sicily. Finally, the most famous - the Venetian school - was born; opus veneticum covered all branches of jewelry and artistic crafts and was distinguished by its unique originality and excellent quality. And Venetian glass was subsequently placed above all else. Refined techniques for its processing and use go back to the early Middle Ages. There is a version that when the Veneti of Aquileia, having escaped from Attila, and then fugitives from the Lombards, began to gradually develop the 118 islands of the Adriatic lagoons and build sand embankments, then even then they became thoroughly acquainted with the properties of quartz and calcareous varieties of river and dune sand that lay in the physical the basis for the future of local glassmaking7).

In Northern Spain, outside the zone of Moorish influence, Carolingian traditions were generally preserved. Crosses with images of angels and inscriptions in someone's honor were popular there, for example in honor of King Alfonso II the Pure (808), the saints of Santiago (874), King Ramiro (902), Victory of Oviedo (908) .). From the 11th century decorations of the so-called late Iberian style appeared on church cups, imitating those created in Roman Spain. These cups are kept in the Leon Church of St. Isidore, Silos Abbey of St. Dominica, national repository of Queen Urraca. Northern pilgrims who came to worship in Santiago de Compostela, at the buried remains of the Apostle James, traded jewelry there from France and the Netherlands. The Manueline art school that dominated in Portugal did not have its own direction and practiced mixing many styles, preferring not to combine precious stones with things made of precious metals8).

A turning point in goldsmithing has emerged in connection with the development of new, fairly saturated silver deposits. In the 8th century they founded the Alsatian mines of Markirche, from 922 silver was mined in the Saxon mines of Mittweida and Frankenberg, from 968 in the Harz mine of Rammelsberg; later the bowels of the Erzgebirg Freiberg were added to them. As a result, the opportunity opened up to launch production of previously unknown products. Among them are boxes decorated with blackened silver, silver pencils for icon painters, pure crushed silver for doctors who used silver therapy, silver threads for finishing sewing, carpet inserts made of silver wire. Then very large goldsmithing workshops appeared in Nuremberg and Augsburg9).

Already in the early Middle Ages, goldsmiths used in practice very diverse production techniques, with variations in different places. The range of products expanded, among which all kinds of relics, coverings, plaques, latches, expensive jugs and lids, candelabra and lattices, chests and arks, frames and figurines appeared. Gradually, a standard division of products made of precious metals was determined into plate, minted, engraved, chain, enamel and scanned. Their deliveries to palaces and temples, cities and fairs became more regular. The first mints (Melle in the Carolingian state, Cologne in Ottonian Germany, etc.) carried out not only the issue of coins, which at that time was a jewel in itself, but also supervision of the purity of gold and silver. Sometimes craftsmen adapted to the mints, quickly transforming brand new coins into decorative monistas10).

As noted above, goldsmiths were often also jewelers in the broad sense of the term. But there were also jewelers in a narrow interpretation, who worked primarily with precious stones, and only then framed them or gave them to other hands for this purpose. These craftsmen were initially patronized by the Christian Church, based on the fact that 17 biblical and 12 apocalyptic gems are mentioned in the Holy Scriptures. Such jewelers were even different in appearance. [130] For example, in England later they wore white or scarlet shirts during ceremonies, and in other places they had a special hairstyle. From their ranks came a number of prelates. The most famous is the first abbot of Solignac and bishop of Noyon, Eligius (590-660). He founded the Limoges School of Jewelry, the traditions of which have been preserved for centuries, and he personally worked as a jeweler for the Merovingian kings Dagobert I and Clovis II. Subsequently canonized by the Catholic Church, St. Eligius was considered the patron saint of all jewelers11).

The art of finishing precious stones, constantly improving, was reflected in medieval reference books - lapidariums. It mentions precious stones of the first value (diamond, sapphire, ruby, chrysoberyl, alexandrite, emerald, spinel), second value (topaz, aquamarine, light beryl, red tourmaline, almandine, opal, zircon), semi-precious (garnet, turquoise, non-red tourmaline , rock crystal, chalcedony) and, finally, gems. However, stones that did not fall into the gradation were also used, which, moreover, did not remain unchanged12).

In the VII-VIII centuries. The Byzantine-Egyptian “stones of Abraxas” that had survived from ancient times were passed from hand to hand and bought up. These were amulets with symbolic signs, made on heliotrope. During the Crusades, “straw bundles” came from Palestine to Western Europe. This was the name given to products made from striped stones - agate, carnelian, jasper - based on their appearance. Then they were copied in Europe. As for the first medieval products of local origin, these are intaglios: precious stones with deep cutting on them, for example with the image of Alaric II (Northern Italy, 507). At the same time, the contours of lions, cheetahs and dragons began to be cut out on popular glass paste, and the craftsmen of the Lower Rhine, already isolated from the southern influence, produced “alsen” jewelry - dark blue round pieces of glass13).

In Gaul, Merovingian jewelers worked primarily with almandines, pyropes and garnets. In the 9th century. The dominance of the Carolingian school was established, which was characterized by intaglios on crystal depicting a crucifixion or a noble person. They also cut horn and tortoiseshells, carved small sculptures from ivory, and scraped marble. In jewelry, the place of purely conventional pictures inherent in previous centuries is taken by more realistic ones. If intaglios were made on single-color stones, then from the beginning of the 2nd millennium convex cameos with reliefs on layered onyx and agate appeared. Then the products were polished with pumice, quartz and soapstone. For precision grinding already from the 6th century. rare and difficult to obtain diamond powder was used. Noble metals were polished with agate. The oldest European form of poorly processed gemstone is the cabochon: a dome that, according to accepted rules, looked like a frozen drop of pork fat. But the craftsmen of that time, quite primitive, did not yet know how to properly take into account the hardness, cleavage, refrangibility and all the diversity of minerals14).

The minerals used were invariably accompanied by symbols. A certain importance was attached to the nature, number, shape and arrangement of stones. For specific people, according to their birth months and zodiac signs, strictly certain stones were ordered and selected. Persons of different classes, social status and occupation were also given different stones. The division was also observed depending on the planned events and other personal circumstances. Thus, a diamond brought from distant India (it was called both a colorless diamond and a sparkling diamond obtained after its processing) was considered a stone of the Sun, favorable for those born under the sign of Libra and bad for Aries, unlucky for buyers and happy for those who received it as a gift, very harmful in the presence of spots or cracks, treating insanity and internal hemorrhages15).

Blue sapphire was mined in Helvetia. He was known as a talisman of sages, a strengthener of the power of overlords, a stone of Jupiter, beneficial for Aquarius and unfavorable for Leo, helping only the good-natured, but depriving them of fun. The red ruby ​​from the Czech Republic was called the stone of Mars, a symbol of wealth and greatness, desirable for crowns and sceptres, was considered a panacea when crushed, was useful for those born in July, and turned evil people into genuine demons. Yellow chrysoberyl from South Asia promised good luck to players and was worn against leprosy. Green alexandrite, coming from afar through Rus', was beneficial to Pisces and was bad for Virgos, and made its owners peace-loving. The greenish emerald (emerald), brought from Egypt, was called the patron of all fertility, natural and human, good for Virgos and bad for Pisces, protecting sailors, and when set in gold - in general from any infection. Emeralds were especially valued as stones in the wall of the “heavenly Jerusalem”. Quite early, by grinding, they learned to transform them, like light beryls, into lapides ad legendum (reading stones), which preceded glasses. Lal [131] (pink spinel), mined in Sweden, helped with lower back pain and generated feelings of love in its owners. Various interpretations, superstitions, signs and legends accompanied other precious stones16).

Sometimes a serious struggle unfolded for their acquisition even at the raw material stage. Very expensive stones were exchanged for various material benefits, including quitrents; used as a bargaining chip in political disputes, served as an instrument of intrigue and a cause of discord; given to rulers to gain their favor. News about individual rare stones was passed from mouth to mouth, sometimes acquiring characteristic social significance. Interested parties—nobles, merchants, envoys of jewelry schools—closely monitored the appearance of especially valuable specimens in everyday use. To do this, they even tried to somehow control the places of their extraction: yellowish topaz and reddish garnet - in the High Tatras, bluish aquamarine - in Provence, golden chrysolite - in Silesia, whitish opal - in Hungary, multi-colored hyacinth - in inaccessible Norway, rock crystal - in the Alps, black agate - in Sicily, jasper (jasper) - in different parts of Germany, amber - in Dacia and the Baltic states. By the way, amber was used not only for jewelry. From light pieces of it, plates were cut out and ground for magnifying loupes. Given the certain uncertainty of boundaries inherent in the early Middle Ages, there were many contenders for the same protected areas, so people died not only for metal, but also for minerals. One should not think that they only reached out to “good” jewelry. They also sought to obtain those that were notorious, for example, sherl (black tourmaline) - the stone of witches, zircon - the stone of evil sorcerers, hematite - the stone of sorcerers, which was used to draw Kabbalistic figures on the ground17).

The lilac amethyst has always remained a favorite of the highest clergy. In particular, it prevented intoxication. When drinking wine, the popes usually held a so-called papal amethyst, rounded, on their cheek. Bishops had a strong tradition of wearing rings with very large amethysts, and on the table placing an amethyst glass glass or a glass drilled into a whole amethyst. They treated the olive amethyst, which guarded lovers, and the greenish (cat's eye), which served as a guardian of secret love, somewhat differently. Catholic priests, forced to celibacy, met their chosen ones, wearing a ring with a cat's eye18).

Let us characterize some especially important, combined or most frequently encountered jewelry of that era. Their top was occupied by crowns. Already the Lombard kings had them in gold. Under Charlemagne, they first began to be decorated with precious stones. Women's crowns were also used (from the light, purple-clad hand of Eudokia of Constantinople, before 460), often replaced by crowns. Gradually, the crown took on the appearance of a diadem, ornamented with lamellar fleurs. The first imperial crown was made not for Charlemagne, as is sometimes believed, but for Otto I by Reichenau craftsmen in 962. In the royal crown, which differed from it in details, the center was occupied by a golden apple - a symbol of any Christian monarchy, and they began to sew between the arms from the 13th century. purple stripes (first seen by Edward I Plantagenet). The ducal crown had five arches and was framed with an ermine ribbon in front; on a regular princely crown there were three arches 19).

Among the crowns, papal crowns stood apart. Not yet determined by a permanent form earlier, from the middle of the 9th century. were crowns with a fabric top. In the 11th century, through the efforts of a supporter of papal theocracy, Gregory VII Hildebrand, they turned into double ones, which meant a combination of secular and spiritual power. Let us add in passing that three centuries later they became triple, similar to a Persian miter connected to a double crown, and lying on two crossed keys entwined in a tunic, which opened the gates to earthly temples and the kingdom of heaven. The tripartite designation meant that the church was a suffering force in Christ, militant towards the Gentiles and all-conquering; the trinity, symbolizing the Trinity, also indicated the power of the church over the heavenly, earthly and underground worlds. These metamorphoses in the appearance of the crown reflected the evolution of papal power itself.

Rings and signet rings were commonly used jewelry. The common people have practically not reached us. As for the rings of noble people, Frankish copper rings with personal signets, wide bronze papal ones with emeralds, gold episcopal ones with amethysts, women’s marital fidelity rings (men did not wear them then), called Gallic liturgical rings for priests, are known from the 1st millennium. At the end of the 1st millennium, rings with state seals appeared, feudal rings of various degrees with personal monograms, as well as investiture rings given by lords to their vassals and with charm inscriptions [132]. Since the beginning of the 2nd millennium we have encountered an endless variety of rings for people of different classes, origins, ethnicities, professions and preferences, for different seasons of the year, ages of life, months of birth and fingers. Medieval legends and traditions are filled with stories about magic rings20).

Bracelets were made smooth, figured and twisted, solid and composite. Wide, smooth bracelets with stars were worn by astrologers, and chrysolite, which strengthened endurance, was worn by fast-walking messengers. Gold, silver, bronze, wooden, horn and bone combs remained a favorite decoration for women, but, judging by grave finds, they were sometimes worn by men. There were combs with teeth in one, two and three rows, clean and with ornaments. Liturgical ones were inserted into the hair during worship (for the first time - by Lupus of Sens, 613). Then the priests began to decorate them with precious stones (for the first time - with Heribert of Cologne, 1021). Ceremonial combs were used during coronation and induction into the episcopate; monastic combs were hung below the tonsures on chains.

Precious nails were specially made for artistic imitation of the crucifixion, as well as for storerooms, because according to legend, chests filled with three gold nails are inaccessible to thieves. There were ethnic differences in precious clasps. So, among the Alemanni they were silver, with a cunning hook; the Norwegians also have silver ones, but with a pin; among the Franks and Goths - with a cap collar; in the Balkans - invoices, in the form of animal figures. Silver wire was sawed into studs; if a spell was scratched on them, then for magical purposes they pierced the image of the enemy. Precious earrings hung in the 1st millennium mainly on the ears of men and were traditional among sailors, mountaineers and garbage collectors. Neck ornaments were constantly worn by both men and women equally. Archaeologists borrowed many necklaces from early medieval necropolises, which have now been collected into remarkable collections. The best are considered to be those kept in the National Museum of Rome and the Florentine Silver Museum21).

Some jewelry of that time, which are now ordinary things, reflect the specifics of the era. Let's name briquettes of salt, bronze (only a few temples at that time could afford to have bronze bells), intarsia (mosaic stones with drawings), mirrors (the common people looked into puddles, tubs of water or pieces of polished pyrite), “agate”, which served as popular currency. glass with color (Cologne conical drinking vessels made from it were exported, and the Lorsch Monastery has kept “agate” heads of saints since the 9th century), purple paint, soap. Purple paint was made in France from the colored secretion of the glands of the Atlantic Ocean snail, in Italy - from the Mediterranean purple snail, in the Middle East - from the imported Indian Ocean purple snail. Cut and dried snails were boiled with salt in a lead cauldron, then further processed. From 10 thousand mollusks, 1 g of dye was obtained, which was valued more than gold. Instead of soap, at the beginning of the Middle Ages they used sand or wax paste with a thickened greasy solution, and the first soda soap, which created a sensation, was made in Marseille in the 9th century. The magnates sent special expeditions for him. In the old city of Massilia, in the side basement of the crypt (underground chapel), there was a soap factory, and in the square near the church baptistery (baptistery) they sold rare products.

Jewelry had, in its own way, an exceptional and very diverse impact on the psychology and life of medieval people as a striking component of their material and spiritual culture.

1) DUCHESNE, abb. Etude sur le Liber pontificalis. P. 1877.

2) PÉRIN P. Collections mérovingiennes. P. 1982.

3) ZEIP H. Die Grabfunde aus dem spanischen Westgotenreich. Brl.-Lpz. 1934.

4) BOURNON F. Histoire de la ville et du canton de Saint-Denis. P. 1892; DURLIAT M. Die Kunst des frühen Mittelalters. Freiburg. 1987.

5) BOURNON F. Histoire de la ville et du canton de Saint-Denis. P. 1892; DURLIAT M. Die Kunst des frühen Mittelalters. Freiburg. 1987.

6) SCHADE G. Deutsche Goldschmiedekunst. Lpz. 1974.

7) VARI A. Le origini di Venezia. Firenze. 1964.

ESTEPA S. El nacimiento de Castilla y León. Valladolid. 1985.

9) BLAIR S. (gen. ed.). The History of Silver. Lnd. 1987; VILAR P. Gold und Geld in der Geschichte. Munich. 1984. [133]

10) OATES PH. The Story of Western Furniture. Lnd. 1981; GRIERSON PH. Monnaies du Moyen Age. Friborg. 1976.

11) STEINGRÄBER E. Der Goldschmied. Munich. 1966.

12) BLACK JA A History of Jewels. NY 1974.

13) WENTZEL H. Gems and Glyptics. In: Encyclopedia of World Art. Vol. VI. NY ao 1962.

14) FRIESS G. Edelsteine ​​im Mittelalter. Hildesheim. 1980.

15) DA VIES G. Diamond. Bristol. 1984.

16) SCHUMANN W. Edelsteine ​​und Schmucksteine. Munich. 1981.

17) BRUTON E. Legendary Gems or Gems That Made History. Radnor. 1986.

18) EVANS J. A History of Jewelery, 1100-1870. Lnd. 1953.

19) KUGLER GJ Die Reichs-Kronen. Wien. 1986. It was after the coronation of Otto I as emperor in Rome that German jewelers made it a rule, as they said, to work for the three Ks: Kaiser, Kirche, Kapital (emperor, church, wealth) (Silber und Cold: Augsburger Goldschmiedekunst für die Höfe Europas. München, 1994, p. 17).

20) WARD A. ua Der Ring in Wandel der Zeit. Munich. 1981; BATTKE H. Geschichte des Ringes. Baden-Baden. 1953.

21) CAME R. Argenti. Milano. 1964.

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Lapidarium

genre of symbolic literature of the Middle Ages. It described the special magical properties of stones and their symbolic meaning, echoing Christian teachings.

An influential poetic lapidary is Liber lapidum , (“Book of Stones” or “Book of Stones”). He describes the properties of sixty stones.

Compiled between 1061 and 1081 by Bishop Marbod of Rennes and was regularly reprinted.

The stone inserts are polished to cabochons until the end of the era. Enameling remains a popular technique for creating colorful scenes and details.

Characteristic decorations for the Middle Ages:

buttons, hair clips, hat badges, rings, weapon decorations, coronets, brooches, bracelets, brooches, chains with pendants (crosses, medallions).

Rings were worn on several fingers.

Hat decorations were popular during the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. They could convey messages about the owners: initials, short mottos, coats of arms, allegorical or secular themes. Some such badges were worn by pilgrims and conveyed moral messages.

Medieval jewelry

Northern Europe during the period of migration

Famous shoulder-clasp from Sutton Hoo, one of the finest examples of gold and garnet cloisonne inlay work (not enamel)

Barbarian jewelry from the migration period is one of the most common forms of surviving art from their cultures, and the personal adornment of the elite was clearly considered very important for both men and women. Large jeweled fibula brooches, worn singly (with a cloak) or in pairs (for many types of women's clothing) on ​​the chest, were made in several forms based on Roman styles, as barbarian peoples including the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Franks, The Anglo-Saxons and Lombards took over territories of the Western Roman Empire. These and other decorations very often used gold and garnet cloisonné, where the patterns were created by thin crumbs of garnet (and other stones) arranged in small gold cells. Enamel was sometimes used in the same style, often as a cheaper substitute for stones. In Insular art in the British Isles, the preferred form was the penannular brooch, and exceptionally large and elaborate examples such as the Tara Brooch and Hunterston Brooch were worn by both secular elites and clergy (at least on liturgical vestments). Relatively few other types of decoration survive from this place and period. Wearing cheaper jewelry seems to have gone quite far up the social ladder; gold was relatively cheap at the time.

Although mostly based on Roman designs, styles varied among different tribes or people, and jewelry buried in graves can be used to track the movements of ethnic groups, presumably serving along with other aspects of costume as a cultural identifier of life. [9]

The Anglo-Saxons who founded the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England favored round disc brooches in either clasp or penannular shapes, and used gold and garnet cloisonné among other styles. The finest and most famous collection of barbarian jewelry is that of a (probably) Anglo-Saxon king, around 620 years old, found at the Sutton Hoo burial site in England in the mid-20th century. [10]

Byzantine, Carolingian and Ottonian

Byzantine pair of earrings, c. 600 AD

Byzantine necklace and pair of earrings found at Asyut, Egypt c. 600 AD (British Museum) [11]

Jewelry from the Byzantine Empire often featured religious images or motifs such as the cross, even in pieces intended for secular use. The refined Roman styles were continued, but cloisonné enamel was increasingly used. The main orders for gold work and decoration came from the court or church. [12] Thus, much of the decoration was very religious, including ornate crosses and depictions of the afterlife or the lives of saints. [13] The Byzantines excelled at inlay work, and their work was extremely rich, using precious stones, glass and gold. [14] Little remains of Byzantine jewelry, as this period marked the end of human jewelry being buried with it, so much of the truly extravagant jewelry depicted in mosaics and paintings has disappeared. [15] Carolingian jewelry is similar to Byzantine jewelry in that the modern world has lost almost everything except what was created for religious purposes. [16] The Carolingians were similar to the barbarians in their love of color, but the techniques they used - especially enameling - are much more reminiscent of the Byzantines. [16] The most outstanding piece of jewelry from this period is the crown of Charlemagne, with precious stones, filigree, enamel and gold. [17] Ottonian style is, again, very similar to the Byzantines and Carolingians. Religion plays a major role in the remaining decorations. [18] The Ottonian style is a cross between the German and the Byzantine, surpassing both in technique and refinement. [18]

Viking

Viking-period penannular brooches in silver from the Penrith hoard, three of the "thistle" type.

Viking jewelry started out quite simply - with unadorned bands and rings - but quickly evolved into an intricate and masterful art form, with a strong preference for silver, which was unusual in the Middle Ages. The Vikings most often used two methods: filigree and repoussé. [19] The main themes of Viking jewelry were patterns of nature and animals, increasing in abstraction over time. [20] Later, Viking jewelry also began to display simplified geometric designs. [21] The most intricate Viking work is a set of two stripes from the 6th century at Alleberg, Sweden. [20] Barbarian jewelry was very similar to Viking jewelry, but had many similar themes. Geometric and abstract patterns were present in much of the barbarian art. [22] Like other barbarian women, Viking women needed jewelry to wear their clothing and were probably rarely seen without it.

Late Middle Ages

In the 13th century, jewelry became the province of aristocratic and noble houses, where sumptuary laws prohibited common people from wearing jewelry with precious stones, pearls, and excessive amounts of gold or silver. [23] The royal treasury inventory contains images of hundreds of intricate pieces of jewelry, including brooches, rings, and precious belts. [24] At the same time, there was also simpler work using gold of complex processing, but without precious stones decorating it. [24]

By the end of the period, the types of personal jewelry worn by wealthy women were not much different from those found today, with rings, necklaces, brooches, lockets, and (less commonly) earrings popular. But accessories such as belts and purses, as well as other personal items such as combs and book covers, can also be decorated with jewelry, which is rare today. Poorer women wore fewer similar styles of personal jewelry made from cheaper materials as they do today. Wealthy men wore much more jewelry than today, often including large chain collars and a cap badge, which could be very extravagant.

Characteristics:Period: 15th-17th century

• arabesques, floral motifs; biblical and mythological stories
• marine theme: ships, mermaids, sea monsters - as a result of geographical discoveries
• portraits painted in enamel, cameos
• engraved drawings by artists
• stones: sapphires, rubies, emeralds, pearls
• production of imitation precious stones using foil, doublets; imitation diamonds made of glass, rock crystal
• techniques: inlay, casting, gilding, filigree, blackening, cutting, enameling;

The Renaissance gradually spread from Italy to the north, displacing the Gothic style of the Middle Ages.

An important detail in popularizing the style was jewelry designs. The drawings (like the products themselves) freely passed from one country to another.

During the Renaissance, culture puts man and humanism in general first. Since antiquity, the beauty of the human body has been rediscovered. In this regard, they began to use jewelry in the modern sense: to decorate the body itself, regardless of clothing.

These changes made it possible to decorate oneself regardless of status. And although it was mainly the nobility who could afford truly luxurious things, jewelry made of gold, silver, ornamental and semi-precious stones became more accessible.

It is still difficult to determine where, by whom and when the decoration was made. Jewelers were masters of a particular technique or task. The design could be developed by an artist, the product was cast by another person, painted with enamel by a third, and inlaid with stones by a fourth.

Thanks to Benvenuto Cellini's book "The Treatises of Benvenuto Cellini on Goldsmithing and Sculpture" there is a complete understanding of Renaissance jewelry techniques.

Thanks to the development of trade routes and the beginning of colonization, new materials became available. A lot of diamonds came from India, emeralds and rubies came from Colombia and Sri Lanka, pearls came from the Persian Gulf. This influx of precious stones spurred the development of the art of cutting. The émail en résille was invented - etching a design on glass, which is then covered with gold foil, and the cavity is filled with powdered enamel. A type of cloisonne enamel that requires careful temperature control.

Since the 16th century, Belgium has become the center of diamond cutting in Europe. There is a preference for table cutting, later - rose cutting.

Characteristic decorations for the Renaissance:

Pendants become the main decoration of the Renaissance. They were worn on a necklace, a gold chain on a dress or on a belt.

Some pendants served functions. For example, there are jewelry toothpicks, toothpicks or pomanders with incense - to hide the unpleasant odor due to poor hygiene.

The aromatic fillings themselves could be expensive, so the pomander is a sign of wealth. It was attached to a precious chain on a belt or neck, on a rosary, and some were even placed on a ring. Pomanders are pendants (most often spherical) with containers for aromatic substances, fragrant herbs, and incense. Some models have separate containers with different contents.

Pomanders were decorated with engraving, enamel, precious stones, and blackening.

Pendants with biblical scenes in miniature sculptures or sacred IHS monograms were common. They are believed to be derived from the Greek word "Christ". The initials of the owner or loved one appear. These decorations were considered very personal, so they were often destroyed after the death of the owner.

Rings with stones and signets are worn on five fingers and even on several joints. These decorations are also functional: with a compass, sundial, scented materials.

Earrings with simple designs are coming back into fashion. These are pear-shaped pearls or precious stones that were threaded into or tied to the pierced ear. Complex hairstyles were decorated with intricate headdresses, pendants, strings of pearls or beads and delicate pendants. Aigrettes appear - decorations for hairstyles or headdresses.

They wear single earrings in the form of beeches, moors, and sea creatures. From the beginning of the 17th century, designs became more geometric and the length of earrings increased.

History of gold jewelry: part 2 - from the Middle Ages to the present day

(Read the beginning in Part 1: antiquity).

Europe of the early Middle Ages

When the Romans left Northern and Western Europe under the blows of various warlike tribes, the uniform Roman style in the manufacture of gold jewelry, traced throughout the empire, disappeared. In their place came no less impressive decorations of the Saxons, Goths, Franks, Alans and other peoples.

At this time, due to the destruction of the old Roman trade routes and connections, the early medieval world began to experience a shortage of gold for the manufacture of jewelry, the demand for which remained high. Gold was no longer mined, but was mainly delivered from Byzantium, which was difficult and dangerous in conditions of devastation and chaos. For this reason, jewelry from this period is usually an alloy of gold with a significant amount of silver. By the time the Vikings began to transform the map of Europe, gold jewelry was very rare and was mostly made from silver or the base metals copper and iron.

Votive (a special type of crown that was given to the church) crown of the Visigoth king Reccesvint. Gold, precious stones. Second half of the 7th century.

Gold jewelry in the Islamic period

The emergence of Islam in the 7th century was largely responsible for the shift away from ostentatious wearing of gold jewelry in the East. It was believed that wealth would be better spent on building mosques and financing new conquests. Very little gold jewelry dating from the period between 650 and 1000 has survived.

After the 10th century, jewelry ceased to be rare, and a fairly uniform revival of their production began from the Islamic world in the East to England in the West. While the reasons for this revival are still debated, it is surprising how quickly sophisticated gold-working techniques were revived, from the fine wire and granulated gold work of the Fatimid Caliphate to the enamel gold jewelry of Western Europe. Gold became the main trade item in the Islamic world, it was mined in mines from Africa to Afghanistan and even ancient tombs in Egypt were looted during this period.

Gold pendant decorated with an enamel insert. Fatimid Dynasty, Egypt. 11th century

Golden Art of the Renaissance

The renewed joy of owning personal jewelry came to people with the beginning of the Renaissance. The Renaissance brought with it a turn in the interest of art, including jewelry, from religion to man himself. This was its similarity with ancient art, with its realistic depiction of people and nature. The artists in their works were inspired by the masterpieces of ancient masters; they seemed to come to life again. That is why this era is called the Renaissance. Such Renaissance master jewelers as Caradosso and Cellini achieved prestige and honor on par with the outstanding artists and sculptors of that time.

Wealthy Italian patrons began to discover ancient art and jewelry just as Spain found new sources of gold in South America. However, the gold that was delivered to Spain in the 15th and 16th centuries was mainly the products of Indian jewelers, which were ruthlessly melted down into ingots. In the 17th century, the popularity of gold jewelry, which arose during the heyday of the Renaissance, began to decline. Their place, thanks to the development of cutting and polishing techniques, was taken by precious stones, the flow of which to London and Amsterdam from India increased significantly after the founding of the British and Dutch East India Companies. Gold again began to serve as a setting for stones.

Benvenuto Cellini. Saliera (salt shaker). Gold, enamel. 1540-1543.

Pre-Columbian civilizations: Inca gold and more

The term "pre-Columbian jewelry" describes jewelry and gold jewelry made by South American craftsmen who lived in what is now Colombia and Peru before Columbus discovered America. Until the nineteenth century, all gold items that predated the Spanish conquest were generally attributed to the work of the Incan civilization.

However, we now know that the art of jewelers reached high skill much earlier. Around 1200 BC The masters of the first great Peruvian civilization, Chavin, already made gold jewelry by forging and embossing thin sheets of gold. The technique of casting gold was developed around 500 BC. the Nazca tribe, who lived in the desert regions of southern Peru.

The development of technical skills reached its zenith between 1150 and 1450 AD in the Chimu culture of northern Peru. Chimu jewelers perfectly knew the technique of lost-wax casting, welding gold, creating alloys and had an excellent command of the technology of finishing objects with gold. They also mastered the filigree technique, making thin wire by drawing gold.

Unlike products from Egypt, Greece and Rome, most pre-Columbian jewelry was made using the casting technique. To do this, gold is mixed with copper - copper lowers the melting point and makes the alloy more suitable for making complex castings. The high copper content also gives gold a slight pinkish tint. South American jewelers coated objects with an alloy of 30% gold and 70% copper, and then treated the surface with acids extracted from plant sap. As a result, copper oxide was formed, which could be removed and a thin layer of pure gold remained on the surface of the product.

Magnificent golden copies of animals, birds, and plants have reached us - for example, skillfully made golden corn with silver leaves. After the Incas conquered the Chima, they continued to use their jewelers, whose work the Incas highly valued—gold was the “sweat of the sun,” and silver “the tears of the moon.” However, these jewelry traditions were lost after the Spanish invasion, when in 1532 the conquistador Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire, captured the ruler Atahualpa (the Supreme Inca) and demanded a ransom for him. This ransom is considered one of the largest loots in military history. It amounted to about eight tons of gold bars, which were smelted from gold items collected throughout the defeated empire. What was created by masters over 2,500 years was almost completely destroyed. The finest collection of surviving pre-Columbian gold artifacts is on display at the Museo del Oro in Bogota, Colombia.

Necklace (fragment). Chimu civilization. Gold, turquoise. 1000-1400 year.

West African Gold Coast

In Africa, the art of making gold jewelry flourished on the “Gold Coast” on the coast of western Africa, in what is now Ghana. The Gold Coast is known not only as the main source of gold from Africa from the 16th to the 19th centuries, but also as an example of African goldwork created by the Ashanti people who lived there. However, their products were not in the true sense of decoration, since they were used to indicate rank in the ruling class.

Chest disc. Cast gold. Ashanti, Ghana, circa 1870.

Gold jewelry in 19th century Europe

By the 19th century, transformations were taking place in Europe, which led to increased popularity and demand for gold jewelry. These changes were driven by the partial mechanization of complex operations, such as braiding gold chains, and by a significant increase in the supply of gold brought about by the discovery of gold deposits in California, Australia, and South Africa. What had previously been an extremely rare metal, available only to the very rich and noble, suddenly began to appear in sufficient quantities. The final crescendo in the tradition of goldsmiths working in the interests of royalty was heard in the works of Carl Faberge, made for the Russian Emperors. Subsequently, the growing industrial middle class of Europe and America became the main market for jewelers. At this time, gold wedding rings, for the first time in history, are becoming quite common.

Egg "Peter the Great". Inside is a miniature of the Bronze Horseman monument. Carl Faberge. 1903

And a little about the 20th century and the present time

The history of jewelry in the 20th century represents the emergence and development of a huge market for gold jewelry, previously available only to a narrow circle of people. Also, one can note the loss of the monetary function of gold in the 20th century - coins began to be minted exclusively for numismatic or investment purposes.

Beginning of the article “History of gold jewelry”: Part 1: antiquity.

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Works by designers from the JEWELIRUM catalog

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• Ring, Precious Park
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• Indian style ring, Anna Goffman
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• Drop-shaped ring, EKATERINA TOLSTAYA
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Comments

• Azhmebika

  I really liked about Gold jewelry in the Islamic period, great article, well done author

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  Good luck and prosperity to you

  8 years ago Reply

• juvelirum

  Thank you for your feedback. Very nice!

  8 years ago Reply

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Baroque

Separate decorative belts and sashes were worn to display jewelry. For example, in the form of pearl beads or gold chains.

Characteristics: Period: 1600 – 1775

• pearls, rubies, emeralds, topazes
• gold and silver jewelry in the form of flowers
• Moorish art motifs
• arabesques, symmetry
• naturalistic forms, ribbon bows, bouquets, single flowers
• techniques: engraving, inlay with colored stones slightly replaces enameling
• the quality of cutting improves, the demonstration of stones, and not only and not so much the shape

With the beginning of the 17th century, fashion changed. These changes apply more to France, Italy and somewhat later to Spain. Germany, England and the Netherlands will catch up to these trends later.

The French court, led by Louis XIV, were the trendsetters of the time. In this they supplanted the Spanish and French Habsburgs during the Renaissance.

International trade is booming. The solvency of merchants and the middle class is growing. The enriched bourgeoisie begins to claim luxury that was available only to the nobles.

To meet the growing demands, jewelers are creating jewelry with the same design but using different materials. To imitate rubies, emeralds, topazes and diamonds, they used glass rhinestones - “paste”.

Jewelry is now divided into everyday and for going out. This trend developed during the Georgian period.

Trade with the Middle East brought exotic flowers to Europe. This led to a passion for botany, which soon became a popular hobby. This was reflected in jewelry art. Jewelers tried to display fantastic plants in jewelry.

Now the emphasis in products is on the bright colors of precious stones and metals. Working with shapes and enamels gradually fades into the background.

In addition to flowers, a bow becomes a characteristic form for jewelry. It is believed that it appeared as a ribbon that attached the stone to clothing.

Characteristic decorations for the Baroque style:

Pearl parures (sets) of necklaces, bracelets, hair ornaments, earrings.

By the mid-17th century, earring designs took on more complex details. Luxurious “chandeliers” and “girandoles” earrings are becoming popular. The brooch takes on a familiar appearance and a purely decorative function. This is associated with the Marquise de Sevigne, a French court lady. It is believed that she came up with the idea of ​​wearing a design of a satin bow and a pendant on a clasp on the bodice. Other ladies followed this example and began to wear similar decorations on their bodices.

Chandelier (French chandelier - lamp, chandelier) - earrings consisting of a central part and many pendants.

Girandole (French girandole - candelabrum, candlestick) - earrings consisting of a central part and three voluminous pendants.

Such jewelry is bulky and heavy, and therefore difficult to wear. To make the design lighter, hidden loops and bands were used to transfer some of the weight to the top of the ear or a band in the hair.

Fabric belts or in the form of chains were decorated with pendants and were also considered an independent decoration that did not perform other functions. During the Renaissance, watches were part of other products, now they are independent decorations. All jewelry art techniques of that time were used for watch design.

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Thursday, April 18, 2013 03:28 + to Maya_Peshkova’s

all author's notes During the Middle Ages, gold was scattered around the world, and the development of most ore deposits ceased. If during the heyday of the Roman Empire gold mining reached several tens of tons per year, then in the early Middle Ages, at best, it was 1 - 2 tons. New young feudal states that arose here and there experienced a large shortage of gold. Each feudal lord independently minted his own coin and depicted his own seal or heraldic sign on it. Since gold was constantly in short supply, gold coins began to gradually decrease in size and weight. In addition, the content of other metals, at best silver, has significantly increased in them. In the early Middle Ages, counterfeiting of gold coins and the fight against counterfeiters began to gain momentum. In the 8th century, due to the fact that the share of other metals in gold coins became greater than gold itself, the production of gold coins decreased significantly. For almost three centuries, gold coins were not actually minted by young European states. Only after gold mining gradually began to revive from the end of the 11th century did the minting of gold coins resume. Fragment of the Altontower triptych. Approx. 1150. Bronze, gems, enamel. London, Victoria and Albert Museum. Work in abandoned Roman mines was gradually revived, and over time, new gold ore deposits were also discovered, for example in the Carpathians. It is interesting that the names of such small German towns as Goldberg, Goldenstedt and Goldkronach indicate that they once mined gold a long time ago. Kings and large feudal lords (dukes, counts, archbishops, etc.) most often leased out gold mining located on the territory of their possessions. The rent was approximately 10 percent of the mined metal. The volumes of gold mining in general were very insignificant, and the technology, at best, was borrowed from the ancient Romans. Ancient gold helmets of medieval knights In the thirteenth century, in medieval England they began to produce a large coin in denomination of 4 pence. The word large does not mean its size or weight, but its nominal value. The coin also received its own name - grout. The issue of the coin was primarily due to the fact that in the Middle Ages the main problem was the deterioration of coins. This means that the coin lost part of its weight value due to the operations of the scammers, that is, the edges of the coin were cut off, and part of the metal from which it was made, usually silver and gold, remained with the scammers. The coin had a special device that was supposed to protect the state treasury from damage to the coins. The new grouts featured a cross that began and ended at opposite ends of the coin. Thus, if a coin was damaged, it was immediately noticeable without any weighing. Almost simultaneously with silver coins, gold coins also appeared. This was quite a big progress of the Middle Ages, since gold disappeared from monetary circulation for about several decades. However, at the turn of the fourteenth century, due to the widespread development of trade relations, both within and outside states, gold returned again as a material for the manufacture of coins.

The earliest medieval coins were minted in Italy. First of all, this was due to the acute problem of the foreign economy. The most famous coins of this period are the Floren florins and the Venetian ducats. It is worth noting that they received their name from the silver coins that preceded them, but after gold became the main metal, these names were assigned to them. A rather curious fact is that the name of the Venetian coin, ducat, means county, in fact, this is where the name of the coin came from. The coins are presented in excellent execution. The main coin type is invocations to God, and therefore the images and inscriptions are also dedicated to him. For example, if we consider the Venetian Ducat, then on the front side there is an image of Jesus Christ, and around him there is an inscription telling that the government of the state is dedicated only to God and not to anyone else. The reverse of the coin also depicts Jesus Christ, but this time together with Saint Mark, who hands him a sign of authority. Already at the end of the fourteenth century, so many gold and silver coins were minted that a number of medieval European countries flourished. In medieval Italy alone, about two million gold coins were minted. The Middle Ages became the most important stage in the formation of art and the period of the emergence of new gold jewelry that corresponded to the spirit of the times. Compared to late Ancient Rome, gold jewelry of the early Middle Ages is distinguished by roughness of execution, and animal themes predominate in them. St. Faith. Enameled plaque with retablo of St. Remaclusa from Stavelot. Approx. 1150 Frankfurt, Museum of Applied Arts. At a later time, gold products acquired a church orientation, since the church became the main customer for jewelry. During the Middle Ages, jewelry was produced mainly in royal and ecclesiastical workshops. But, nevertheless, by the middle of the 13th century, independent guilds of goldsmiths began to be created in European capitals. They were created despite the resistance and all sorts of obstacles that the church put in their way in this matter. Cover of the Gospel of Bishop Notger of Liège (971-1008). Ivory carving (1100 g), enamel (1150 g). Liege, Museum Curtius. In medieval Europe, only kings, nobles, and clergy of the highest rank could wear gold jewelry. Also, respected large merchants could afford gold jewelry. Reliquary for the head of St. Alexandra of Stavelot Abbey. 1145 Silver, bronze, gems, pearls and enamel. Brussels, Royal Museum. Gold jewelry again, as in Ancient Rome, became a symbol of power. They exactly corresponded to the status and wealth of their owner, indicating his position in society. In medieval Europe, there was a certain procedure for introducing a vassal into possession of a certain territory of land, transferring to him a position or dignity, during which he was given a symbol of power - a gold ring. In the 13th century, most medieval states passed a law according to which commoners were forbidden to wear gold. Portable altar by master Eilbertus of Cologne. Approx. 1135. Chasing on bronze and enamel. Berlin, State Museum. It was in the Middle Ages, at the courts of kings, that alchemists appeared, making great efforts to obtain gold from base metals, with the help of the philosopher's stone. Thanks to medieval alchemists, they managed to obtain many new chemical elements, but not the coveted solar metal. Scenes from the life of St. Constantine and St. Elena. Triptych from the Abbey of Stavello. Approx. 1157. Two small golden triptychs of Byzantine origin from the 11th-12th centuries are mounted in the center. Chasing on bronze. Gems. Pearls. Enamels. New York, Pierpont Morgan Library. Purification of Naaman in the waters of the Jordan River. Enameled plate from the Abbey of Saint Denis, 1145 London, British Museum. Reliquary. 1175 Coinage and enamels. Dormstadt. Hesse Regional Museum. Reliquary of Henry the Second. Approx. 1168 Gilt and enamel. Paris, Louvre. Crucifix stand from Saint Bertin Abbey. 1150. Embossing and enamel. Saint Omer, Museum. The nobility loved to add various decorations to their clothes. Men and women wore rings, bracelets, belts, and chains. Very often these things were unique jewelry. For the poor, all this was unattainable. And not only because of the cost, but also because it was prohibited by law. Wealthy women spent significant amounts of money on cosmetics and perfumes, brought by merchants from eastern countries. They were envied by representatives of the fair half of humanity, who could not afford such luxury, but tried to keep up with fashionistas. In the Middle Ages, sapphire remained one of the most commonly used stones - the casket of Charlemagne decorated with sapphire stars is known, the sapphire ring of St. Edward the Confessor, which was later inserted into the Crown of the British Empire, and the sapphire ring of Mary Stuart, the Holy Crown of Hungary and the regalia of the Czech kings were decorated with sapphires . In Rus', where blue and blue stones were especially popular in the Middle Ages, sapphires were of great importance - in addition to the already mentioned Ivan IV, Boris Godunov, Ivan Kalita, Mikhail Romanov, Ivan Alekseevich, and many, many others loved sapphires – you can’t count the ladles, chalices, barmas, decorations, armor, and crosses stored in the Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin. Both Monomakh’s hat and the “Great Attire” of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich are decorated with sapphires.

At a later time, a 200-carat sapphire crowns the imperial orb for the coronation of Catherine II, and Alexander II gives his beloved wife a brooch with a 250-carat convex sapphire covered with thousands of tiny facets - today it is one of the seven historical stones of the Diamond Fund of the Russian Federation.
M.I. Pylyaev, a famous Russian gemologist, talks about a wonderful figurine made of a solid 100-carat sapphire, depicting a female figure about 9 cm high, on a round ruby ​​pedestal. Crucifixion. A shoulder pad discovered in one of the monasteries in the Vladimir province and sold abroad by the Soviet government. Approx. 1165. Enamel. Nuremberg, German Museum. Early Gothic decorations have hardly survived to this day; we learn about how they looked and were used from miniatures and icons of that time, and sometimes from sculptures. The best examples of early medieval jewelry that have come down to us come from the Rhine and Meuse regions. Reliquary in the form of a cathedral from Hochelten. 1170. Embossing, enamels, bone carving. London, Victoria and Albert Museum. The most precious female jewelry that we know from this time belongs to the vestment of the Empress Gisela, who allegedly wore it during her wedding to Emperor Conrad II in 1027. In medieval society, only a select few were able to wear precious jewelry. Reliquary casket. 1150 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. During the Renaissance, this circle expanded, and at the same time the highest aristocracy and clergy began to wear more luxurious jewelry than was customary in the previous era. Paintings of that time, mainly works by German masters, depicting clothing and jewelry in detail, give us a good idea of ​​this. Quite often, for example, they wore several rings on one hand. The Renaissance loved precious stones and colored enamel and abundantly decorated with them the most popular jewelry of those times - pendants. The work of master Nikolai Verdensky. Prophet Habakkuk. From the Casket of the Three Kings. 1190 Silver, bronze, gems and enamels. Cologne Cathedral. The 17th century turned out to be a turning point for the diamond cut. At that time, diamond cutting was invented, which revealed the unique beauty of the indisputable first-born among precious stones. Antique vase on which is mounted an eagle (also known as the Eagle of Abbot Suger). 1130 Marble, silver bronze. Paris, Louvre. Plaque from the tomb of Geoffrey of Anjou. Approx. 1155 Enamel. Lemans Museum. Hugo Lasert and St. Stephen from Murre. Panel from the altar of Grandmont Abbey. 1189 Enamel. Paris, Cluny Museum. St. John. 1200 London, British Museum. Kings. Front view of figures from the Isle of Lewis. Approx. 1150 g. Ivory. British museum. Kings. Rear view. Chess pieces from the Isle of Lewis. Approx. 1150 g. Ivory. British museum. Clothing jewelry - pins, brooches, buckles, pendants
Among the most beautiful jewelry of the Middle Ages are plastically modeled, gold-enameled agraphs made by Burgundian masters of the early 15th century, who demonstrate in them the amazing power of artistic will and amazing skill.
Clothes pins.
The central place in medieval jewelry is occupied by brooches, which have been used by almost all European peoples since the Bronze Age.
Over the centuries, they have evolved from a simple fastening pin intended for fastening garments to a luxuriously decorated item. Northern Europe was characterized by single-link brooches, while the cultures along the Danube had two links, often made already in the La Tène era and in the region of ancient culture from noble metal inlaid with stones and enamel. During the era of the Migration of Peoples, when the Germanic tribes first came into close contact with a purely Mediterranean culture, such remarkable works arose as, for example, two luxurious gold brooches with garnet decoration, which were found along with other gold objects in Szilágy Somio. Merovingian women's clothing also included inlaid disc brooches and animal brooches made of precious metal, which were usually worn in pairs and whose influence on Carolingian jewelry is quite obvious. To the same extent, from the jewelry that was only accidentally preserved, it follows that Merovingian jewelry was only an integral part of Carolingian creativity and that the jewelers of this era were also influenced by Byzantium and classical antiquity. Thus, we often find antique gems or cameos as the main element of medieval jewelry. Clasps

A direct continuation of the golden disc, round and quadrifole brooches can be considered the fastenings of cloaks or capes (pluvials), which on secular clothing could be preserved until the 13th century and were worn by the clergy for a long time.
With their help, the cloak was fastened on the chest or, according to German custom, on the shoulder. If paired brooches were connected to each other by a chain, then they were called clasps. They were often made of thin sheet gold and decorated with spherical gemstones, pearls, filigree and colored enamel. Medieval jewelers also used antique gems and cameos for the middle part, obviously not being able to correctly interpret the images carved in stone. With the advent of the 13th century, the social structure of Europe changed; chivalry became the most important factor, which made the cult of the lady and sublime courtly love the focus of its interests. Fibula from Untersinbenbrunn (Austria). Gold, silver, glass paste, enamel. 5th century Museum of Art and History. Vein. The refined forms of life of a large part of society noticeably influenced the jewelry making during the Gothic period, and along with luxurious large clasps for cloaks, graceful agraphs appeared. Like the first ones, they are clothing decorations and in women's clothing they fasten the lapel of the neckline. This decoration often reflected the personal attitude of the donor to the gifted beloved; Gothic agraphs sometimes cover love inscriptions and mottos. Entwined hands, pierced hearts, flowers, keys and similar motifs appear again and again in these objects. In France, which played a leading role in European jewelry, in the 13th century agraphs were made in the form of a fragile openwork wreath of leaves. Ring-shaped agraphs made in the Baltic Sea region in the 13th-14th centuries, which were compositionally completed by intertwining two hands, are characterized by needles covered with disks or rosettes, which turned the clothes clasp into a valuable decoration in its own right. They were fastened to the dress with a wire eyelet and in the Low German dialect are called “hunttruvebratz.” Agraphs

In the 13th century, agraphs made of gold decisively predominated, while in the 14th century - mostly silver “cuttings,” as agraphs were originally called in Germany. The ceremonial clasps of the pluvial, which in the 13th century had plastic decoration and decoration in the form of stones, also changed their shape in the 14th century, becoming emphatically flat and decorated with images enameled on silver. Among the most beautiful jewelry of the Middle Ages are plastically modeled, gold-enameled agraphs made by Burgundian masters of the early 15th century, who demonstrate in them an amazing strength of artistic will and amazing skill. Along with figurative motifs from the Bible and church history, they were decorated with images of fabulous animals and birds, favorite female images and flowers. These luxurious decorations were often given as gifts to court favorites. In general, we can say that the best decorations of that time come from the area between the Rhine and Meuse.

Late Gothic agraphs are characterized by high enamel relief with predominantly religious figurative motifs, which in no way means that this decoration was worn only by members of the clergy, as evidenced by contemporary painting. The so-called cufflinks of nobles, which since the Middle Ages were made in Transylvania and distributed from there throughout Europe, also refute this assumption. The most common church decoration, the choir curtain clasp, retained the quadrifole shape of early medieval brooches for a long time, but was abundantly decorated with figures and in one of its most beautiful examples, which is kept in the sacristy of the Aachen Cathedral, it comes significantly closer to Burgundian jewelry.

.
As we have seen, agraphs, along with clasps for cloaks, played an important role in Gothic jewelry; their shape was partly due to regional identity and, as a dominant part of the costume, they embodied the artistic will and taste of their creators and owners. During the Renaissance, clothes pins in all their forms (brooches, clasps for cloaks, agraphs) were far behind pendants, only to reappear in the 17th century, but in the form of brooches. Brooches

Like its predecessors, clothes pins, a brooch is also not only a decoration itself, but often performs a certain utilitarian function. For example, you can use it to attach an orphan, collect loose folds, or close a cutout. Legend attributes the introduction of brooches to Madame de Savigny, a witty lady at the court of Louis XIII, whose passionate letters to her daughter were published and became famous as documents of the court life of France 1671-1696. The outer side of brooches was initially abundantly decorated with rubies, sapphires, emeralds and pearls, while in the second half of the 17th century, rue-shaped diamonds were especially favored. Just as the magnificent female attire at the court of the Sun King differed significantly from the modest and noble dress of the Gothic style, so brooches were not only the heirs of clothes pins in a functional sense, but as a representative decoration they should also emphasize, for example, a beautiful neckline or a nobly ascended, naked neck.

In the 18th century, brooches studded with diamonds became “the latest craze.” In accordance with the prevailing artistic taste, brooches in the form of ribbons, bouquets of flowers, skillfully woven branches were preferred, and playful Rococo also adopted this tendency, enriching the lush, strictly symmetrical forms of the preceding Baroque with graceful details and asymmetry effects. By the end of the 18th century, brooches with miniature portraits in a gold frame with a pearl border and a predominant closed shape of a circle or oval became fashionable.

Brooches at the turn of the century are modestly framed miniatures, portrait silhouettes, cameos carved in semi-precious stone or lava, Wedgwood plates (two-tone unglazed relief with the usual combination of white on blue) or mosaics of semi-precious stones. During the empire, preference was given primarily to brooches decorated with cameos. This decoration experienced its true heyday in the Biedermeier era, when it served to fasten many collars and neckerchiefs worn at that time.

The spirit of romance has not left its mark on the brooches either.
Miniature brooches became fashionable, and their material value receded far behind the ideal; The locks of friends, a distant lover, or an early deceased child began to be worn in brooches, and the surface of the decoration was covered with emblems of friendship, love, or mourning. In the first half of the 19th century, ancient gold-making techniques found a new significant response: filigree and granulation combined with semi-precious stones, which owed this revival to the Roman jeweler Pio Castellani. Buckles.
Already the Renaissance, which preferred pendants to agraphs, used a version of this decoration as a hat outfit. Hat buckles were extremely popular in Italy in the first half of the 16th century and are known in both simple and more expensive versions. Modest hat buckles were cast from bronze and for the most part consisted of an enamel portrait in a circular or oval frame, while more representative examples were antique scenes, images and other motifs chased in gold that suited the taste of the time in the form of high relief with enamel. European medieval belt set, England 14-15 centuries. Copy. Shoe buckles, which appeared in the mid-17th century and were worn with equal pleasure by both adults and children, and pants buckles, often precious, with inset diamonds, which became available in the thirties, can be considered as a costume accessory and decoration, devoid of any function. from the 18th century as part of a cavalry costume. Along with expensive copies, there were all sorts of imitations, such as buckles with rhinestones or steel buckles imported from England. Medieval boots with brass buckles.

Normans In contrast to what is described above, the belt buckle must have performed an important function from the very beginning. Such buckles were already made in the La Tène era from bronze or precious metal and decorated with various engraved, shot and chased patterns. With their help it was possible to tighten the belt that held the garment. In many pre- or early historical cultures, belt buckles of a well-defined shape are found, as eloquently evidenced by excavations of ancient burials. These metal buckles, sometimes elaborately cut and richly decorated, are located at waist height, where the deceased once wore a leather or fabric belt.

These are brooches and buckles from the Frankish lands. The functionally determined form of the belt buckle suggests only a few varieties.
Usually it consists of a rod and a frame, which can be either round, quadrangular or oval. Greater scope for imagination is provided by the finishing of the belt buckle. Thus, from the 13th and 14th centuries, silver buckles come mainly with plastic decoration, the impression of which was enhanced by niello and enamel. Late Gothic north of the Alps found pleasure in buckles with fine openwork patterns; shoots and leaf patterns constituted the most commonly used decoration motif. During the Renaissance, cast silver belts, which consisted of separate, movably connected links, were very popular. Floral and other motifs popular at that time inspired silversmiths when making openwork elements of the belt. The Italian Renaissance preferred flat silver buckles decorated with niello, although plastic relief was no exception here either. The ceremonial “Spanish fashion” of the second half of the 16th century gave rise to the appearance of expensive gold or silver belts made of links with artistically executed openwork patterns, often richly decorated with enamel, precious stones and pearls. Subsequently, the buckle lost its meaning. Capricious fashion chose a different silhouette and women's clothing received new shapes. Fashion designers still sometimes work on buckles, although some of them, made of gold with colored enamel, from the Second Rococo and Art Nouveau eras, are very successful. Pendants.

On the border between clothing and body decoration there is a pendant, which, unlike them, does not perform any direct function in the attire, but effectively supports the overall impression or, as fashion demands, emphasizes and highlights a certain detail of the costume (hat, belt, etc.) . With body jewelry (necklace, bracelet, earrings), pendants often form an inextricable aesthetic whole and, moreover, have a higher ideal or symbolic significance. The pendant is perhaps as ancient in origin as humanity itself. Our distant ancestors, in fear of the natural elements or to protect themselves from malicious enemies, hung themselves, presumably, with pieces of shiny stone, bright berries, beautifully crafted pieces of wood on wicker grass or thread; in any case, the pendants include small amulets, which were attributed magical powers, and various ritual accessories of the clan. Later, when people began to find pleasure in decoration, pendants of various shapes appeared, readily worn on a ribbon or chain around the neck, on a belt, on a bracelet and on a watch strap, or on a hat and beret. The custom of decorating oneself with shiny objects is inherent in all nations, and pendants made of precious metal, often decorated with colored or carved stone, enamel, niello, filigree, granulation, relief or pictorial images, are found both in antiquity and among the Germanic tribes and other peoples of the great times. resettlement, as evidenced by grave excavations. Pendants can also include the so-called pilgrim plaques of the early Middle Ages, cross-shaped relics decorated with filigree, granulation and crescent incisions, as well as small reliquaries - caskets in the form of cases - Kaptorgas - Slavic gold and silver work. Gothic art, which perfected the production of agrafs and fasteners, paid much less attention to pendants. The most ancient pendants of this time were round and flat, decorated with enamel, colored precious stones or pearls, and expressed, first of all, the religious feelings of the people wearing them. Only in the 15th century do pendants begin to appear more frequently; Along with the round ones, products of various shapes with relief decoration appeared, the motives of which so far naturally came from the circle of church themes. Among other materials, they loved ivory and mother-of-pearl, in which a relief image of the Madonna and Child or the figure of a heavenly patron was often carved.

Until now, pendants experienced an unprecedented rise and unprecedented flourishing during the Renaissance, when they left all related types of jewelry far behind. Expensive jewelry made of precious metal is known, richly decorated with precious stones and pearls, in addition to enamel and other means of decoration popular at that time. Along with this, there were also simple pendants made of base metal, made with much less extravagance and impressiveness.

Now, as a rule, they no longer adhere to a more round shape; pendants of elongated, pear-shaped shapes, which are further lengthened by freely hanging pearls, have become popular. Men, women and children alike enjoyed wearing multi-colored luxurious pendants, although it is believed that the first impetus for the rapid development of this form of adornment came from the low-cut 15th-century women's attire. The Italian Renaissance of the 16th century loved modeled figurative images and enamel combined with beautifully colored gemstones.

The most beautiful examples of this art are attributed to Benvenuto Cellini, although not entirely justifiably, for at that time many other famous jewelers and goldsmiths worked at the courts of Italian sovereigns. “Spanish fashion,” which appeared in the middle of the 16th century and was distinguished by its particular luxury, also preferred to choose plastically developed figurative motifs for the front side of pendants, while the reverse side was flat and covered with enamel ornaments (moresques, grotesques, bandelwerk). Renaissance pendants were also often was decorated with emblems, figures and scenes that were borrowed from Christian doctrine, but at the same time, in this sphere of human activity, the bright world of antiquity, its gods, heroes, generals and emperors, its mythological and allegorical images opened. Zoomorphic pendants were also very popular and belonged to the royal gifts accepted at that time. The most common pendants are in the shape of an eagle, rooster, swan, pelican, ostrich and lizard; fairy-tale characters, such as unicorns and dragons, were also common. As already mentioned at the beginning, among other things, they used unusually shaped pearls and stones in the form of parts of the human or animal body, and also used other fancy natural materials, such as mother-of-pearl, etc. It is hardly possible to reliably attribute certain decorations to any place or residence, for the most skilled jewelers were invited by various sovereigns to the courts, such as Rudolf II in Prague, and created their works there, so that after the execution of orders or the death of the patron-sovereign, they could move to another patron and continue their studies there. This phenomenon is not new in the art of jewelry: after the collapse of the Roman Empire, the so-called wandering goldsmiths moved from residence to residence, melting the resulting noble metal into jewelry in the provincial Roman spirit, so that scientists for a long time cannot come to a consensus as to whether the specimen was found in a barbaric burial in a distant province, a trophy, a gift or an imitation of a humble local artisan, until they find the so-called grave of the goldsmith and thus establish the truth. Pendants as “favors” with decorative monograms, coats of arms, initials or ornamental patterns are also widespread. Some figured pendants of this era were based on works by famous artists, such as the moon-shaped medallion of Our Lady, which is known in several copies and was made according to a sketch by Albrecht Dürer. Hans Holbein, Martin Schongauer and other painters and engravers of that time influenced the formation of the shape of pendants, which is especially evident in the figured, cast silver products. The peculiar form of the pendants, the grant pfenning with a portrait of the sovereign, which was worn on a grant chain, is characteristic of Germany and also belongs to the group of “favors”. The most precious unique pendants include order insignia, which on special occasions or at court receptions complemented the pompous attire of secular and spiritual dignitaries. In the 17th century, the exclusive predilection for pendants was abandoned for a long time, only pendants in the shape of a cross began to be worn even more often. Their front side was decorated with rue-cut diamonds or a hundred-tablet diamond, while the reverse side was usually painted with enamel. By the beginning of the 18th century, necklaces with drop-shaped or star-shaped diamond pendants became very fashionable. Classicism, with its love for carved stone, served as an incentive for the further development of pendants. Gems and cameos, portrait silhouettes and miniature images were often worn in the form of medallions on a black velvet ribbon as a chest decoration. After the War of Independence in Germany, small crosses made of cast iron were readily worn for a long time. In terms of pendant shapes, the 19th century also drew inspiration from past stylistic eras or used Orientalist motifs. Subsequently, the pendants did not develop independently and over time merged into an inextricable whole with the neck decoration. Medieval jewelry is not just luxurious and busy - it reminds of great events in the history of Europe. Based on materials from: https://www.kulturologia.ru; https://cs2.livemaster.ru;

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Treasures of great civilizations, medieval jewelry

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Jewelry and costume jewelry in the Gothic style

Styles in art are formed over a long period of time and smoothly transition from one to another, being in continuous development. Sometimes several styles exist simultaneously. But as the creator of the Paris Opera building, Charles Garnier, argued, “... every era contains its own beauty.”

Some styles, having outlived their time many decades and even centuries ago, return again and again, repeating some and changing others in one form or another. In jewelry art, talented designers and craftsmen always feel the pulse of their time. Each style is based on its own philosophy of life.

For example, the Gothic style in jewelry is based on philosophical and religious heritage. In the modern world, the Gothic style draws inspiration mostly from the dark side of life associated with death - skulls and the gloomy attributes of vampirism.

True Gothic is more sophisticated - its attributes are swords, shields, crosses, crowns, coat of arms and stained glass elements. The elements of decoration included heavy chains with large pendants, belt buckles, rings, agraphs... The rings were decorated with large precious stones, as well as religious themes; in the latter case, jewelry with enamel was especially revered.

If today we pay attention to the magical properties of the stone insofar as, then in the Gothic style the symbolism of stones was of great importance. Gothic style pendants and agraphs were also decorated with large precious stones and enamels. They also loved pearls in gothic style. The contrast of white pearls with black lace always looked luxurious.

The Gothic revival at the end of the 20th century is identified with skulls, bats, scarab beetles, spiders and vampires. By the way, people started talking about vampires and other attributes of the other world back in the Victorian era, when the Irish writer Bram Stoker created a vampire.

By mixing medieval Gothic culture and modern trends, designers have created, one might say, a new style with a rich and varied palette of jewelry.

Particular preference in modern Gothic is given to white gold, silver and platinum. Precious white metals and diamonds create a contrast with the gloom and heaviness of stones, among which the most commonly found are rubies and emeralds.

Attractive luxury is combined with dark skulls framed by large diamonds, which creates a feeling of mysticism and familiarity with mystery. As in medieval jewelry, stones and the jewelry itself are often made provocative and massive.

The creative director of the Christian Dior jewelry line, Victoire de Castellane, presented jewelry in the Gothic style, in which she allowed a certain boldness in expressing her understanding of this style. The jewelry contains skulls, atypical for the French brand, surrounded by large precious stones, crosses covered with diamonds, fastenings for parts of many products that resemble spider legs, rings, necklaces, brooches, pendants decorated with stones in the shape of skulls.

Victoire de Castellane is not afraid of experiments; the somewhat intimidating and attractive luxury of her Gothic collection will not leave anyone indifferent.

A luxurious ring made of white gold with diamonds and blood-red rubies, an amazing feminine necklace with a scattering of diamonds, rubies and dark blue sapphires, a pendant made of white gold and rubies reminiscent of drops of blood - everything attracts the eye with elegance and luxury. And although the Gothic jewelry style requires a certain outfit, many ensembles from the Victoire de Castellane collection are relevant for any outfit and situation.

French jeweler Lydia Courtel occupies a special place in Gothic jewelry. Scientist, gemologist, collector and traveler, Lydia Courtel, began creating her own jewelry collections more than ten years ago.

Her small boutique is located near Place Vendôme, on Rue Saint-Honoré, where you can meet not only collectors, but also simply lovers of antique jewelry from all over the world, and among them celebrities...

Her own collections intertwine styles from different eras. Flora, fauna, mysticism, symbolism, archeology - everything is combined brightly, nobly and with dignity.

Many of Lydia Courtel's products are made in the Gothic style. Her daggers, crosses and skulls made of gold, diamonds and sapphires do not create a gloomy, intimidating impression. Lydia selects stones for her jewelry herself, traveling to different countries. Earrings, rings, bracelets are created with unique materials - for example, gold with rhodium plating.

The Spanish jewelry company Magerit creates original jewelry using the technique of miniature sculpture. Design ideas and high craftsmanship embody the mysterious and legendary Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris with its evil and gloomy gargoyles and stained glass windows.

Gargoyles, monsters that decorate medieval temples, are associated exclusively with evil forces in Christian beliefs. Gargoyles are images of the forces of chaos; they were believed to be tamed by a higher spirituality, the center of which is the temple.

Jewelry in the Gothic style mostly requires a corresponding style of clothing, hairstyle, makeup and even nail color. Among them there are jewelry that can allow a freer choice, so when buying such jewelry, you should think through your entire look in advance, and in what situations you will wear it.

The Gothic style of jewelry, using medieval artistic traditions, will always be popular, because the desire for mystery is ineradicable in humans.